Tag: space

This article was originally published at The Conversation. The publication contributed the article to Live Science’s Expert Voices: Op-Ed & Insights.

From the earliest of times, philosophers and scientists have tried to understand the relationship between animate and inanimate matter. But the origin of life remains one of the major scientific riddles to be solved.

The building blocks of life as we know it essentially consist of four groups of chemicals: proteins, nucleic acids, lipids (fats) and carbohydrates. There was much excitement about the possibility of finding amino acids (the ingredients for proteins) on comets or distant planets because some scientists believe that life on Earth, or at least its building blocks, may have originally come from outer space and been deposited by meteorites.

But there are now extensive examples of how natural processes on Earth can convert simple molecules into these building blocks. Scientists have demonstrated in the lab how to make amino acids, simple sugars, lipids and even nucleotides – the basic units of DNA – from very simple chemicals, under conditions that could have existed on early earth. What still eludes them is the point in the process when a chemical stew becomes an organism. How did the first lifeforms become alive?

Although there is some debate about the definition of life, it is generally recognised that all life requires the formation of a sustainable cell, and cells must be capable of reproduction. In human cells, this is done using strands of the chemical DNA. When cells divide, they use the DNA as a blueprint for how to make the new cells.

But cell division doesn’t always produce an exact copy of the DNA. Usually this copying mistake, or mutation, is a disadvantage and the cell can be discarded. But sometimes the mutation confers a benefit or advantage to the cell (or organism) in its present environment. In this case we say it is “selected”, meaning that it thrives and multiplies to the detriment of other cells.

It’s all in the chemistry

But how did the very first cells emerge? Living systems are chemically based and therefore must obey the laws of science. Life appears to be just a series of chemical reactions – and we now understand how these reactions work at the molecular level. So surely this should tell us how life came about?

A vesicle, a cell-like formation with a membrane made of fatty acids.
Credit: Vesicle by shurikart/shutterstock.com

The conversion of these simple biomolecules into more complex ones has been observed under a variety of elementary conditions. For example, fatty acids – a type of lipid building-block molecule – naturally clump together into membrane-like structures, called vesicles, and even undergo chemical processes that resemble cell division and replication. Making simple replicating systems under self-sustaining conditions has also been shown to occur for both simple nucleotides (fragments of DNA) and peptides (fragments of proteins).

Creating order

The real problem is in understanding how this “machinery” of chemicals came together to generate life. The watershed where lifeless chemical activity is transformed into organised biological metabolism is extremely difficult to identify and the trigger for this is a key ingredient missing from the “primordial soup”.

The assumption that early life forms must have been similar to what we see today may be preventing us from answering this question. It’s possible that there were many unsuccessful precursors that bore little resemblance to present-day life. There has been speculation that primitive starting points could even have been based around an element other than carbon (the substance at the heart of all life today). Some researchers suggest that life may have originally evolved in liquids other than water. These alternatives are fascinating, but it’s difficult to find a starting point for researching them because they are so unfamiliar.

Off balance

A key trait that sets life apart from inanimate matter is its reliance on organisation. Molecules must be arranged in a specific way and replicate according to a detailed pattern. But the natural tendency of the whole universe is towards a state of equilibrium, or balance – where everything is spread out and nothing is ordered. Maintaining an ordered structure means life is constantly off-balance and this requires energy, which organisms must extract from their surroundings.

One way that organisms do this is to cause movement of molecules or even sub-atomic particles that can then generate energy for a cell. For example, organisms living in hydrothermal vents on the sea floor get their energy from the transfer of protons through the cell membrane.

Structure of protein
Credit: Iva Hafner-Bratkovič, Helena Gradišar, Sabina Božič and Tibor Dolez

Living systems maintain their “off-balance” state by combining the ability to self-replicate with the ability to extract energy from their surroundings. To discover the origin of life, we need to understand how these properties combined to form a sustainable unit.

Some scientists are adopting a top-down approach, attempting to answer this question by removing bits of a living cell to determine the minimum structure required to sustain life. Others are approaching it from the bottom-up by combining the building blocks in a primitive container to mimic a simple cell.

While both approaches may be enlightening, the precise moment of transition from chemical to life (and vice versa) still evades us. But the lack of discovery is fascinating in itself – it confirms that creating life is difficult and requires conditions that are no longer naturally present on the Earth. A breakthrough in this area would not only tell us the requirements for life, but also the circumstances of its emergence.

Michael Page, Professor of physical organic chemistry, University of Huddersfield

This article was originally published on The Conversation. Read the original article. Follow all of the Expert Voices issues and debates — and become part of the discussion — on Facebook, Twitter and Google +. The views expressed are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the views of the publisher. This version of the article was originally published on Live Science.

A lunar eclipse provides spectacular viewing opportunities for everyone, from amateur skywatchers to experienced observers — read on to learn how to describe what you see.

Here at Space.com, we are inviting our readers to make observations of the total lunar eclipse on Sunday to experience the amazing celestial event, 

No matter whether you plan to watch this moon show for entertainment alone or make planned observations, you should be on alert for unusual happenings. In rare cases, the Earth’s shadow projected onto the moon has had a zigzag shape, or there has been an abnormal pattern of darkness inside the umbra. If skies are clear, this should be a very extensively observed lunar eclipse because of the favorable combination of a weekend night, comfortable early-fall temperatures and visibility of the event from coast to coast.  [Supermoon Lunar Eclipse on Sunday: When and How to See It]

If bad weather spoils your eclipse night on Sunday, you can watch the event live online. The Slooh Community Observatory will host a webcast at 8 p.m. EDT (midnight GMT) and feature expert commentary on the event. You can also watch the lunar eclipse webcast on Space.com, courtesy of Slooh.

Coloration and darkness

The brightness of the moon varies widely from one eclipse to another. One reason is that the moon sometimes passes through the darkest part of the Earth’s shadow and, at other times, through the lighter outer umbra. But there is evidence of actual differences in the shadow from year to year. Thus, a careful description of the colors seen on the totally eclipsed moon and their changes is valuable.

The hues depend on the optical equipment used, usually appearing more vivid with the naked eye than in telescopes. In the early 20th century, French astronomer André Danjon introduced the following five-point scale of lunar luminosity (“L”) to classify eclipses:

• L = 0: Very dark eclipse, moon almost invisible, especially in mid-totality.
• L = 1: Dark eclipse, gray or brownish coloration, details distinguishable only with difficulty.
• L = 2: Deep red or rust-colored eclipse, with a very dark central part in the shadow, and outer edge of the umbra relatively bright.
• L = 3: Brick-red eclipse, usually with a bright or yellow rim to the shadow.
• L = 4: Very bright copper-red or orange eclipse, with a bluish, very bright shadow rim.

Estimates of this “Danjon number” form a long-standing record of lunar-eclipse brightnesses, so they are well worth continuing even in this age, when brightness can be measured more precisely by photoelectric photometry. Visual estimates made by large numbers of people at the same time as photometric measures serve to calibrate decades of past observations. [Supermoon Lunar Eclipse of 2015: Visibility Maps]

To judge the Danjon number, you can use your naked eye, binoculars or a small telescope at low power.  A fractional estimate, such as 1.8 or 2.5, may seem the most appropriate. Try to make three measurements: Examine the moon at mid-totality and also near the beginning and end of totality to get an impression of both the inner and outer umbrae.

Another simple numerical scale for grading the brightness of total eclipses of the moon was proposed by Willard J. Fisher in 1924. It does not involve color but rather the visibility of surface features inside the umbra. Fisher gave the following definition of his scale:

• Grade 2: When the naked eye sees “spots” on the eclipsed moon, or the seas and other detail can be seen with hand instruments like opera glasses, field glasses and spyglasses.
• Grade 1: When instruments with apertures between 2 inches and 6 inches (5 to 15 centimeters) are necessary to show detail on the eclipsed surface.
• Grade 0: When apertures of 6 inches (15 cm) or more are needed.

Moon vs. stars and planets

Another procedure is to estimate the stellar magnitude of the moon during totality by comparing its brightness to the other bodies in the sky. When it’s faintest, at mid-totality, the moon may be similar in brightness to naked-eye planets or prominent stars. To see the moon and stars as comparable disks, some nearsighted observers need only remove their glasses. Another technique is to view both the eclipsed moon and comparison stars simultaneously through binoculars held backward, so that the large objective lenses are nearest to the eyes.

Breathtaking darkness

At mid-totality, the darkness of the sky is very impressive. Faint stars, which were completely washed out by the brilliant moonlight prior to the eclipse, become visible. The surrounding landscape takes on a somber hue. As totality ends, the eastern edge of the moon begins to emerge from the umbra, and the sequence of events repeats in reverse order until the spectacle is over.

Unless airborne volcanic aerosols or other unusual atmospheric effects influence its appearance, the moon’s disk should appear moderately bright, especially right around the beginning and end of totality. The lower part of the moon will likely appear brightest and glowing aruddy or coppery hue, while the upper half of the moon should look more gray or chocolate in color.

Good luck, and clear skies!

Editor’s note: If you capture an amazing view of Sunday night’s total lunar eclipse that you’d like to share for our upcoming column or image gallery, send the images to managing editor Tariq Malik at spacephotos@space.com.

Joe Rao serves as an instructor and guest lecturer at New York’s Hayden Planetarium. He writes about astronomy for Natural History magazine, the Farmer’s Almanac and other publications, and he is also an on-camera meteorologist for News 12 Westchester, New York. Follow us @Spacedotcom, Facebook and Google+. Original article on Space.com.

With the advent of digital cameras, photographing lunar eclipses has never been simpler or easier. Here are some tips on how to capture your own souvenir portraits of one of nature’s most colorful and photogenic celestial spectacles.

If you’ve never recorded a lunar eclipse, you’ll get a chance this Sunday (Sept. 27), when the full moon gets totally eclipsed by the Earth’s dark shadow core, or umbra. It will be a so-called “supermoon” total lunar eclipse since the moon will be at perigee, its closest point to Earth in its orbit.

To find out if you’ll be able to see the eclipse, check out Space.com’s skywatching guide. Then use the following tips to photograph this amazing lunar event. [How to Photograph a Total Lunar Eclipse (Photo Guide)]

You will also be able to watch the lunar eclipse live online. The online Slooh Community Observatory will host a webcast at 8 p.m. EDT (midnight GMT) on Sunday. You can also watch the lunar eclipse webcast on Space.com, courtesy of Slooh.

Get a telescope or telephoto lens

To get dramatic close-up views of the eclipsed moon, you’ll need a telescope or telephoto lens with a focal length between 500 and 2,000 millimeters. A 300-mm lens or scope will yield a lunar image that’s only 3 mm across, just barely large enough to show surface details. You can boost the lens or scope’s effective focal length by adding a 2× teleconverter or Barlow lens, respectively.

A telescope with a focal length of 2,000 mm produces a lunar image about 18 mm in diameter, which nearly fills the sensor of a full-frame, 35-mm-format digital single-lens reflex (DSLR) camera. But for many consumer DSLRs that use smaller APS-C sensors, this image size is going to be a bit too large, with the edges of the moon getting cropped in the camera frame. To remedy this, use a focal reducer to make the lunar image fit within the frame, or switch to a telescope with shorter focal length, say, 1,200 mm.

This map shows the areas of the world from which viewers can see the total lunar eclipse. The Americas will have a particularly good view, especially the eastern parts.
Credit: Sky & Telescope

Use a tripod

Be sure to mount the telescope or telephoto lens on a sturdy tripod for stability and to minimize camera shake, which will blur the images. You can reduce vibrations even further by locking the DSLR’s viewfinder mirror up and using an electronic “cable release” to operate the shutter button. A good alternative would be to use the camera’s built-in delay timer to open the shutter.

Carefully focus your telescope/camera combination to obtain sharp images of the moon. Many DSLR cameras now offer “live view” mode, which allows you to see what the camera sensor sees, using its built-in LCD screen. You can zoom in on the image up to 10× magnification to check its focus. 

Use digital, experiment with exposure

The greatest advantage of digital cameras over film for shooting the eclipse is that you get instant results. You can see what the image exactly looks like by reviewing it on the camera’s LCD screen. Does the image look overexposed or out of focus? Not a big deal. Simply adjust the shutter speed or refocus the telescope and try again. Memory cards are now dirt-cheap, so it costs practically nothing to take dozens or even hundreds of photos of the upcoming rare event.

Nobody knows for sure how bright, or how dark, the moon is going to be during totality since it varies significantly from one eclipse to the next. So the best advice would be to “bracket” your exposures, that is, shoot as many images as you can using various exposure settings. Don’t be afraid to experiment to find the best combination of aperture, shutter speed and ISO sensitivity for your particular setup.

Remember, the eclipse will start with a dazzlingly bright full moon. The moon then dramatically dims as the eclipse progresses, appearing dimmest around mid-totality. Afterward, it gradually regains its brightness, and the moon becomes full again as the eclipse ends. By taking lots of pictures, you’ll increase your chances of catching some really good shots. You can also assemble the series of images to create an animation of the eclipse.

During totality, keep your exposures as short as possible by boosting the camera’s ISO setting to 400, or even higher. This will prevent the image from smearing due to Earth’s rotation, especially if you are using a fixed tripod. To extend your exposure time to a few seconds and capture the rich red and orange hues of totality, use a motor-driven, polar-aligned equatorial mount to accurately track the moon as it moves across the sky. [Total Lunar Eclipse of Sept. 27: A Complete Skywatching Guide]

Imelda Joson demonstrates how the afocal projection technique is done using an iPhone 6 and the Swarovski spotting scope that she uses for birdwatching. This is the exact setup used to capture the accompanying photo of the first-quarter moon.
Credit: Imelda B. Joson and Edwin L. Aguirre

Shooting the eclipse with a smartphones

Today’s latest generation of smartphone cameras are capable of taking stunning photos of the moon. However, since you can’t remove or replace the lens of smartphone cameras, you’ll have to use the so-called “afocal projection” method to shoot the eclipse. It sounds intimidating, but it’s really not. It simply means you have to aim the phone camera directly into the telescope eyepiece to take the shot. One advantage of afocal photography is that the telescope will greatly increase the effective focal length of the setup so you can capture decent-sized images of the moon even with a smartphone.

Holding the smartphone by hand is the simplest, though not necessarily the easiest way, to aim the camera. The biggest challenge is to hold the phone and try to keep it as steady as you center the moon in the camera frame, focus on the lunar surface and press the shutter button. Since the moon drifts steadily across the telescope’s field of view when you’re using a stationary tripod, you only have a half minute or so to take the exposure before you’ll need to re-adjust the telescope and camera to keep the moon aligned with the eyepiece and camera lens.

For best results, purchase a commercial bracket or adapter from camera retailers or sporting goods stores that sell optics and accessories for hunting or birding (bird-watching enthusiasts call afocal photography “digiscoping”). Alternatively, do-it-yourselfers can make their own custom mounts. Whatever your choice, make sure the bracket or adapter will fit your eyepiece and will hold the smartphone securely. Be sure to focus the telescope visually first before mounting the camera. If you see vignetting, or darkening around the edge of the image, that means the camera is positioned too far from the eyepiece. To reduce vignetting, move the camera as close to the eyepiece as possible while keeping it centered.

Zooming in can also help eliminate vignetting and increase the image size. But don’t overdo the zoom function — smartphones generally use “digital zoom” to simply enlarge the camera’s picture elements, or pixels, but doesn’t improve the image’s resolution. You can use the phone camera’s autofocus and auto-exposure modes to take the images, or if you prefer, you can adjust the settings to some degree yourself (check the camera manual on how to do this). There are also third-party camera apps you can purchase that will let you control the exposure and edit the photos.

Finally, make sure the smartphone is fully charged since you will be using the LCD screen all the time. Cold temperatures will also cause the battery to lose its charge quickly.

Since the images are stored in your smartphone, you can email, text or share them via social media right away.

Parting shot

The key to imaging the total lunar eclipse is to keep on shooting. If you don’t like what you get, make the necessary corrections or adjustments and shoot again. Unlike a total eclipse of the sun, in which totality lasts only a few minutes, or seconds, during this Sunday’s total lunar eclipse the moon will be immersed in the Earth’s shadow for more than an hour, so you can just keep on trying until you capture a “keeper.”

Most important, take a few moments in between exposures to enjoy the eclipse with your naked eye or through binoculars. No photo or video can compare with the real thing, so try to enjoy it visually, too.

Good luck and clear skies!

Editor’s note: If you capture an amazing view of Sunday night’s total lunar eclipse that you’d like to share for our upcoming column or image gallery, send the images to managing editor Tariq Malik at spacephotos@space.com.

Veteran astrophotographers Imelda Joson and Edwin Aguirre have observed more than a dozen lunar eclipses together since their very first one — a penumbral eclipse on July 27, 1980 — which they viewed from the Philippines. Follow us @Spacedotcom, Facebook and Google+. Original article on Space.com.

The Luna lamp by Acorn Studio was inspired by the moon, and is currently available via an Indiegogo campaign. Credit: Acorn

Ever look up at the full moon on a clear night and wish you could bring it straight into your home? Well, the next best thing is now available, and it’s called Luna.

The spherical Luna lamp looks strikingly like the real moon, so it’s immediate eye candy for night-sky enthusiasts (or really for just about anyone). Lit from within, it radiates a diffuse, soft-yellow glow, and the surface is covered in a patchy light-and-dark pattern, just like the one that’s created by the maria (old volcanic material) on the real lunar surface.

Currently available via an Indiegogo fundraiser campaign, the lamp, made by a company called Acorn Studios, has an adjustable luminosity, and comes in seven different sizes, ranging from 3.2 inches (8.1 centimeters) in diameter, which can be purchased for $75, to 23.6 inches (59.9 cm), for $875. If this Sunday’s super lunar eclipseleaves you particularly inspired, this might be the home décor for you. [How to See Sunday’s Supermoon Lunar Eclipse]

The Indiegogo page advertising the lamp features an adorable video starring a miniature astronaut and a Godzilla monster who encounter each other on the surface of the moon — or rather, the Luna lamp. In addition to being advertised as a piece of art, Acorn Studios touts the Luna’s durability, so it can be put on the floor and even be played with. The lamp is made from fiberglass and latex — according to the Indiegogo page, it is water-resistant, heat-resistant and “crashworthy.”

The lamp is certainly inspiring, and the company doesn’t underestimate just how beautiful it is. In fact, from this description, it almost sounds like the Luna lamp could basically solve all every problem in the owner’s life: “Luna is a design décor that turns your home into a magical world. It’s a lamp that lightens up your favorite reading corner. It’s your companion who embraces you with endless tenderness and warmth late at night when things in life just don’t go smoothly. Your mood varies every day, but Luna stays the same for you. You deserve a better way of living with Luna.”

The cost of the lamp may be high for some people, especially because it would be great to get four or five of these and fill a room with them. Buying via the Indiegogo page gets you a 20 percent discount on most sizes of the lamp, so if you’re serious about buying, now might be the time. The campaign ends Oct. 31.

This Sunday will be a particularly awesome night for moon watching: The lunar eclipse will also be a supermoon and a Harvest Moon. Check out our full coverage of the event right here.

Follow Calla Cofield @callacofield. Follow us @Spacedotcom, Facebook and Google+. Original article on Space.com.

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The moon turns blood red in this 3:30 a.m. ET view of the total lunar eclipse on April 15, 2014 as seen by a telescope at the University of Arizona’s Mt. Lemmon SkyCenter at Steward Observatory atop Mt. Lemmon, Arizona. Credit: Mt. Lemmon SkyCenter/University of Arizona

On Sunday (Sept. 27), skywatchers across the United States will be in for a special treat: The full “supermoon” (a full moon when the moon is closest to Earth in its orbit) will go into eclipse. A lunar eclipse occurs when the moon passes into the shadow of the Earth.

There are several “flavors” of eclipse. A penumbral eclipse happens when the moon just grazes the thinnest part of Earth’s shadow. If the moon partly goes into the shadow, observers see a partial eclipse. A total eclipse is the most spectacular of the three: The moon goes fully into the shadow and appears either red or brown.

Sometimes an eclipse moon is called a “blood moon” because of this rusty color. But why does the moon turn red, and not simply darken to black when it goes into the shadow? As NASA explains, it’s because the Earth’s atmosphere extends beyond the planet, and sunlight passes through it, still reaching the moon. [Supermoon Lunar Eclipse 2015: Full ‘Blood Moon’ Coverage]

“During a total lunar eclipse, white sunlight hitting the atmosphere on the sides of the Earth gets absorbed and then radiated out (scattered). Blue-colored light is most affected,” NASA officials wrote online. “That is, the atmosphere filters out (scatters away) most of the blue-colored light. What’s left over is the orange- and red-colored light.”

The light through Earth’s atmosphere then falls onto the moon. NASA notes that the red light seen during a lunar eclipse is much dimmer than a typical moon’s light. That happens because the red light is reflected back to Earth, and it is much dimmer than the white light the sun usually shines onto the moon’s surface.

The moon turns different shades of red, orange or gold with each eclipse. That’s because the shade of the light reaching the moon depends on what is in Earth’s atmosphere (the amount of water and particles), as well as the atmosphere’s temperature and humidity, NASA wrote. For example, a recent volcanic eruption could send more particulates into the atmosphere, further darkening the moon during an eclipse.

Editor’s Note: If you snap an amazing picture of the Sept. 27 total lunar eclipse and want to be featured in a story or gallery, you can send photos, comments, and your name and location to managing editor Tariq Malik at spacephotos@space.com.

Follow Elizabeth Howell @howellspace, or Space.com @Spacedotcom. We’re also on Facebook and Google+. Original article on Space.com.

In this extended color image of Pluto taken by NASA’s New Horizons spacecraft, rounded and bizarrely textured mountains, informally named the Tartarus Dorsa, rise up along Pluto’s day-night terminator and show intricate but puzzling patterns of blue-gray ridges and reddish material in between. Credit: NASA/JHUAPL/SWRI

If there’s one thing we’ve learned from NASA’s New Horizons flyby on July 14, it’s that we have a really incomplete understanding of planetary evolution. And now, in a new image release by the Pluto mission, there’s yet another landscape (actually, landscapes) that, for now, defies explanation.

PHOTO: New Horizons Returns Photos of Hazy ‘Arctic’ Pluto

In an eerie observation of Pluto’s terminator (the line that separates Pluto nighttime from sunlight on the dwarf planet’s surface) is a very alien-looking landscape with regular ripples that resemble the scale patterns on a snakeskin. The most exciting thing about this image is that, like most of the high-resolution views being beamed back from the Kuiper belt, planetary scientists only have a vague idea as to what might be going on. [On Pluto’s Doorstep: Latest Photos by New Horizons Probe]

“It’s a unique and perplexing landscape stretching over hundreds of miles,” said William McKinnon, New Horizons Geology, Geophysics and Imaging (GGI) team deputy lead from Washington University in St. Louis, in a Sept. 24 news release. “It looks more like tree bark or dragon scales than geology. This’ll really take time to figure out; maybe it’s some combination of internal tectonic forces and ice sublimation driven by Pluto’s faint sunlight.”

ANALYSIS: Pluto: A Very Different Beast to Neptune’s Moon Triton

In short, it’s a conundrum, but it sure makes for an intriguing mystery.

While scientists ponder this latest stop on Pluto’s mystery tour, more stunning imagery has been downlinked, including the highest-resolution color view of Pluto yet, with zoomed-in potions of the tiny world’s heart-shaped region, on a plane informally called Sputnik Planum. You can get lost in the full-resolution image here.

Detail of the interface between Sputnik Planum and surrounding mountainous region.
Credit: NASA/JHUAPL/SWRI

The region, that has already been identified as possessing vast flows of exotic ices, also has what appear to be small rocky islands of material focused around the adjoining “cells” of icy material. Dunes, or features with a dune-like appearance, are also present. Closer analysis of these cells have revealed the icy surface is of a corrugated texture — another feature that is being explained by educated guesswork. Mission scientists think the texture may be down to sublimation processes — where ice is heated and turns into gas, creating Pluto’s thin atmosphere.

Detail of the high-resolution images of Pluto’s Sputnik Planum taken by NASA’s New Horizons spacecraft just before closest approach on July 14, 2015, are the sharpest images to date of Pluto’s varied terrain—revealing details down to scales of 270 meters.
Credit: NASA/JHUAPL/SWRI

Additional information about the distribution of methane ices have also been acquired, presenting more questions than answers. One puzzle is that methane ices are abundant across Sputnik Planum’s planes, but mysteriously lacking from another large region informally called Cthulhu Regio. Besides Sputnik, methane ice seems to be abundant in brighter regions of the surface, accumulating in planes and crater rims. Inside craters, however, there’s none.

PHOTOS: New Pluto Pics Show Beautiful, Complex World

“It’s like the classic chicken-or-egg problem,” said Will Grundy, New Horizons surface composition team lead from Lowell Observatory in Flagstaff, Ariz. “We’re unsure why this is so, but the cool thing is that New Horizons has the ability to make exquisite compositional maps across the surface of Pluto, and that’ll be crucial to resolving how enigmatic Pluto works.”

We have only just begun exploring Pluto and its alien landscape and, as these new observations can attest, we are probably decades from fully appreciating the underlying dynamics that drive Pluto’s atmosphere and surface composition. And the best thing is that we’ve only just begun our tour of Pluto; New Horizons will continue to relay data to Earth well into 2016, revealing a surprisingly dynamic little world on the outskirts of the solar system.

Source: NASA

This article was provided by Discovery News.

A new art project by Richard Clar will bounce images and sounds representing the moon landing off of the moon, capturing the radio waves with this satellite at the Dwingeloo Radio Observatory in the Netherlands. Credit: ASTRON, the Netherlands Institute for Radio Astronomy

Just in time for this Sunday’s (Sept. 27) lunar eclipse, artist Richard Clar will execute two moon-inspired projects that will send a part of Neil Armstrong back to the moon and create an introduction between the “light side” and “dark side” of the lunar surface. 

Clar’s two-part event will bounce some very special radio waves off of the moon from a radio dish in Italy and retrieve them at Dwingeloo Radio Observatory in the Netherlands. The first transmission is encoded with a version of Armstrong’s heart activity that was recorded as he became the first person to set foot on the moon, as well as an image of Armstrong’s moon footprint. A second signal will carry an image of the moon’s dark side, which only the Apollo astronauts have seen in person. 

The transmissions, called “Giant Step” and “Lune sur la Lune” (“Moon on the Moon”), will be made on Sept. 27 at 9 a.m. EDT (1300 GMT) and 11 a.m. EDT (1500 GMT), respectively, and will soon after appear online at www.rockthemoon.com.

For the project, Clar took a copy of Armstrong’s electrocardiogram (EKG) — a record of his heart’s electrical activity — captured as the astronaut stepped onto the surface of the moon for the first time. Clar turned the EKG into sound with the help of data scientist Ryan Compton. Then, jazz performer Roberto Miranda used the EKG as inspiration for a series of sounds on the double-bass. That recording will fly on Saturday along with the iconic images, also in the form of radio waves. The “dark side” image will bounce off the moon’s “light side,” which is always facing Earth.

First footprint on the moon left by Neil Armstrong.
Credit: NASA

“I wanted the art to say something about the first humans to set foot on the moon. Think how many living beings have observed the moon for eons … and now we have made a number of trips to the moon and back. I want people to have new experiences through my artwork,” Clar said in a statement.

This project is inspired by artist Daniela de Paulis’ work bouncing images off of the moon, which she first did in 2009. (One of her projects worked with NASA to beam moon-inspired children’s artwork off of the lunar surface.) This is far from Clar’s first stab at space art: His projects have used new technology to explore orbital debris, the search for extraterrestrial life and other out-of-this-world themes.

Email Sarah Lewin at slewin@space.com or follow her @SarahExplains. Follow us @Spacedotcom, Facebook and Google+. Original article on Space.com.

What can observers expect to see happen during a lunar eclipse? Check out our guide to learn about the different phases of this celestial event.

No enthusiastic skywatcher ever misses a total eclipse of the moon. People are often surprised by how beautiful and engaging the spectacle is. Because of this hypnotizing beauty, during the time that the moon is going into, and later emerging from, the Earth’s shadow, secondary phenomena may be overlooked.

To help prepare for the upcoming supermoon lunar eclipse of Sept. 27 to 28, Space.com’s Joe Rao, a veteran of sixteen total lunar eclipses — has prepared an eclipse chronology. It is likely that not all of the events mentioned will occur, because no two eclipses are exactly alike. But many will, and those who know what to look for have a better chance of seeing them! [Supermoon Lunar Eclipse: When and How to See It]

In the above timetable, all un-italicized times are for p.m. on September 27. Times in italics are a.m. on September 28. When dashes are provided, it means that the moon has not yet risen above the horizon. The eclipse will be visible to more than half the planet — check here to see if it will be visible in your area.

Many European countries are currently observing “summertime,” which is 1 or 2 hours ahead of GMT.

Newfoundland is 30 minutes ahead of Atlantic Daylight Time (ADT).

Puerto Rico is on Atlantic Standard Time, which is the same as Eastern Daylight Time (EDT).

Arizona is on Mountain Standard Time, which is the same as Pacific Daylight Time (PDT).

Alaska is 1 hour behind PDT; Hawaii is 2 hours behind PDT. 

The various stages, fully described:

1) Moon enters penumbra: The shadow cone of the Earth has two parts: A dark, inner umbra, surrounded by a lighter penumbra. The penumbra is the pale, outer portion of the Earth’s shadow. Although the eclipse officially begins when the moon enters the penumbra, this is in essence an academic event — you won’t see anything unusual happening to the moon, at least not just yet. The Earth’s penumbral shadow is so faint that it remains invisible until the moon is deeply immersed in it. We must wait until the penumbra has spread roughly 70 percent across the moon’s disk. For about the next 40 minutes, the full moon will continue to appear to shine normally, although with each passing minute it is progressing ever deeper into the Earth’s outer shadow.

2) Penumbral shadow begins to appear: Now the moon has progressed far enough into the penumbra that it should be evident on the moon’s disk. Start looking for a very subtle, light shading to appear on the moon’s left portion. This will become increasingly evident as the minutes pass; the shading will appear to spread and deepen. Just before the moon begins to enter the Earth’s dark umbral shadow, the penumbra should appear as an obvious smudge, or tarnishing, of the moon’s left portion.

3) Moon enters umbra: The moon now begins to cross into the Earth’s dark central shadow, called the umbra. A small, dark scallop shape begins to appear on the moon’s left-hand (eastern) limb. The partial phases of the eclipse begin; the pace quickens, and the change is dramatic. The umbra is much darker than the penumbra and is fairly sharp-edged. As the minutes pass, the dark shadow appears to slowly creep across the moon’s face. At first, the moon’s limb may seem to vanish completely inside of the umbra, but much later, as it moves in deeper, you’ll probably notice it glowing dimly orange, red or brown. Notice also that the edge of the Earth’s shadow projected on the moon is curved. Here is visible evidence that the Earth is a sphere, as deduced by Aristotle from Iunar eclipses he observed in the fourth century B.C. Almost as if a dimmer switch were slowly being turned down, the surrounding landscape and deep shadows of a brilliant, moonlit night begin to fade away.

4) 75 percent coverage: With three-quarters of the moon’s disk now eclipsed, that part of it that is immersed in shadow should begin to very faintly light up — similar to a piece of iron heated to the point where it just begins to glow. It now becomes obvious that the umbral shadow is not completely dark. Using binoculars or a telescope, observers can usually see that its outer part is light enough to reveal lunar seas and craters, but the central part is usually much darker, and sometimes no surface features are recognizable. Colors in the umbra vary greatly from one eclipse to the next. Reds and grays usually predominate, but sometimes observers see browns, blues and other tints.

5) Less than 5 minutes to totality: Several minutes before (and after) totality, the contrast between the remaining pale-yellow sliver and the ruddy-brown coloration that is spread over the rest of the moon’s disk may produce a beautiful phenomenon known to some as the Japanese Lantern Effect.

6) Total eclipse begins: When the last of the moon enters the umbra, the total eclipse begins. How the moon will appear during totality is not known. Some eclipses are such a dark gray-black color that the moon nearly vanishes from view. At other eclipses it can glow a bright orange. The reason the moon can be seen at all when totally eclipsed is that sunlight is scattered and refracted around the edge of the Earth by our atmosphere. To an astronaut standing on the moon during totality, the sun would be hidden behind a dark Earth outlined by a brilliant red ring consisting of all the world’s sunrises and sunsets. The brightness of this ring around the Earth depends on global weather conditions and the amount of dust suspended in the air. A clear atmosphere on Earth means a bright lunar eclipse. If a major volcanic eruption has injected particles into the stratosphere during the previous couple of years, the eclipse is very dark. But, as of this writing, no such major eruption has happened, so the betting is that this eclipse will be relatively bright. [Lunar Eclipse Beauty: How to Photograph the Moon]

7) Middle of totality: The moon is now shining anywhere from 10,000 to 100,000 times more faintly than it was just a couple of hours ago. Since the moon is moving to the south of the center of the Earth’s umbra, the gradation of color and brightness across the moon’s disk should be such that its upper portion will appear darkest, with hues of deep copper or chocolate brown. Meanwhile, its lower portion — that part of the moon closest to the outer edge of the umbra — should appear to be the brightest, with hues of reds, oranges and even perhaps a soft bluish-white color.

Those who are observing away from bright city lights will notice that many more stars are visible in the later night sky than they were earlier.

The darkness of the sky is impressive. The surrounding landscape has taken on a somber hue. Before the eclipse, the full moon looked flat and one dimensional. During totality, however, it will look smaller and three dimensional — like some weirdly illuminated ball suspended in space.

Before the moon entered the Earth’s shadow, the temperature on parts of its sunlit surface hovered as high as 266 degrees Fahrenheit (130 degrees Celsius). Since the moon lacks an atmosphere, there is no way that this heat could be retained; it escapes into space as the shadow sweeps by. Now that it’s in shadow, the temperature on the moon has dropped to minus 146 degrees F (99 degrees below zero C). That’s a drop of 412 degrees F (229 degrees C) in less than 90 minutes!

8) Total eclipse ends: The emergence of the moon from the shadow begins. The first small segment of the moon begins to reappear, possibly followed again for the next several minutes by the Japanese Lantern Effect.

9) 75 percent coverage: Any vestiges of coloration within the umbra should be disappearing now. From here on, as the dark shadow methodically creeps off the moon’s disk, it should appear black and featureless.

10) Moon leaves umbra: The dark central shadow clears the moon’s right hand (western) limb.

11) Penumbral shadow fades away: As the last, faint shading vanishes from the moon’s right portion, the visual show comes to an end.

12) Moon leaves penumbra: The eclipse “officially” ends, as the moon is completely free of the penumbral shadow.

Editor’s note: If you capture an amazing photo of the supermoon lunar eclipse and want to share it with Space.com for a story or gallery, send images and comments in to managing editor Tariq Malik at spacephotos@space.com.

The Stern family of Colorado spent their Fourth of July holiday in weightlessness during a Zero Gravity Corporation flight on July 4, 2010. Credit: Steve Boxall/Zero-G

A company that makes some of the thrills of spaceflight more accessible to regular folks has hit a major milestone — 10 years of weightless flights.

The Virginia-based Zero Gravity Corp. (Zero G) has now been flying customers on a specially modified Boeing 727 jet for a decade. The plane, known as G-Force One, flies in parabolic arcs that generate brief periods of weightlessness.

Customers usually pay $4,950 for this experience, which can be exhilirating and nauseating at the same time. (G-Force One is sometimes referred to as a “vomit comet.”) But the company is knocking 20 percent off the price for all future flights this year.

“We’ve flown over 500 weightless flights with more than 12,000 clients, including notables like Stephen Hawking, James Cameron, Kate Upton, Halle Berry, Martha Stewart, Sharon & Ozzy Osbourne and Rob Dyrdek. It’s been amazing!” Terese Brewster, ZERO-G president and chief operating officer, said in a statement. “In celebration of our 10-year anniversary, we want to say ‘thank you’ by discounting all remaining 2015 seats.”

Follow Mike Wall on Twitter @michaeldwall and Google+. Follow us @Spacedotcom, Facebook or Google+. Originally published on Space.com.

The Veil Nebula was observed by the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope. Image released Sept. 24, 2015.
CREDIT: NASA, ESA, Hubble Heritage Team

The gorgeous, multicolored remnants of a destroyed star shimmer in stunning new images by the Hubble Space Telecope.

The new set of Hubble photos of the Veil Nebula, which researchers combined into several stunning videos, show a colorful cloud of material 110 light-years wide that lies about 2,100 light-years from Earth in the constellation Cygnus (The Swan).

The Veil Nebula was observed by the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope. Image released Sept. 24, 2015.
Credit: NASA, ESA, Hubble Heritage Team

The Veil Nebula’s beauty belies its violent origins: The structure formed about 8,000 years ago, after a star 20 times more massive than the sun died in a supernova explosion, researchers said.

“Astronomers suspect that before the Veil Nebula’s source star exploded, it expelled a strong stellar wind. This wind blew a large cavity into the surrounding interstellar gas,” officials with the European Space Agency (ESA), which operates Hubble jointly with NASA, said in a statement.

The Veil supernova remnant and the surrounding sky appear in this image.
Credit: NASA, ESA, Digitized Sky Survey 2; Acknowledgement: Davide De Martin

“As the shock wave from the supernova expands outwards, it encounters the walls of this cavity — and forms the nebula’s distinctive structures,” they added. “Bright filaments are produced as the shock wave interacts with a relatively dense cavity wall, whilst fainter structures are generated by regions nearly devoid of material. The Veil Nebula’s colorful appearance is generated by variations in the temperatures and densities of the chemical elements present.”

To see the Veil Nebula in 3D, use red-blue glasses.
Credit: NASA, ESA, Hubble Heritage Team

Features that appear blue in the new images, for example, contain hotter gas than do green and red structures, researchers said.

Hubble also photographed the Veil Nebula back in 1997, so the new images are helping astronomers gauge how the gas cloud has evolved and expanded over the last 18 years. (The 1997 views were captured by Hubble’s Wide Field and Planetary Camera 2, whereas the new photos were taken by the observatory’s Wide Field Camera 3, which spacewalking astronauts installed in 2009.)

This stereo image of the Veil Nebula uses observations made by the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope in 1997 and in 2015. Cross your eyes to see the 3D effect.
Credit: NASA, ESA, Hubble Heritage Team

The Hubble Space Telescope launched in April 1990. The observatory’s initial images were blurry, and mission scientists soon discovered why — Hubble’s 7.9-foot-wide (2.4 meters) primary mirror was slightly flawed.

But astronauts fixed the problem in 1993, and Hubble began beaming to Earth the amazing, supersharp images it’s famous for today. Four additional servicing missions between 1997 and 2009 further repaired and upgraded the observatory, which operators say should keep going strong through at least 2020.

Follow Mike Wall on Twitter @michaeldwall and Google+. Follow us @Spacedotcom, Facebook or Google+. Originally published on Space.com.